Legal Writing - 1315 Words

Affirmative Action College Admissions 2 Abstract Affirmative action has been a strong subject of discussion and debate for more than 30 years. Its use in college admissions has even been heard and ruled by the U.S. Supreme Court. Affirmative action is in essence, a policy or procedure developed by numerous institutions of higher learning to attempt to diversify their student bodies racially and by ethnicity. Looking closer at this procedure will display the advantages and disadvantages of affirmative action and college admissions. Affirmative Action College Admissions 3 Affirmative action is the practice, usually by institutions, of giving preference to racial minorities or women when hiring employees, giving†¦show more content†¦Affirmative action is designed to end discrimination and unfair treatment of students based on color, but it in effect does the opposite. Whites who work harder and/or are more qualified can be passed over strictly because they are white. Contrary to many stereotypes, many minorities Affirmative Action College Admissions 5 fall into the middle or upper class, and many whites live in poverty. Unfortunately, the way things are set up now, a poverty-stricken white student who uses discipline and hard work to become the best, can be passed over by a rich minority student who doesnt put in much effort at all. There are those who say students admitted on this basis are often ill-equipped to handle the schools to which theyve been admitted. Theres a possibility of success in these situations, but its more likely they will be in over their heads. Schools like Harvard and Yale have high GPA and SAT requirements because it is extremely difficult to graduate from them. Thus, when theyre forced to lower standards to achieve a minority quota, some students cant keep up. This isnt to say these students are less capable, but chances are that if they cant meet minimum requirements, they probably arent ready to go there. The far-lower graduation rate of minorities is testament to the fact that they are too often going to schools that dont match their ability. The original application criteria of schools were put in for a reason. We should adhere to them. InShow MoreRelatedLegal Methods, Research And Writing Essay1433 Words   |  6 Pagessuccessful in law whether studying or practicing the profession Legal methods, research and writing is a major necessity for those in the legal field. It is nearly impossible to study or practice law without the basic knowledge of legal methods, research and writing. This essay examines the importance of Legal methods, research and whether in school or outside in the legal profession. The first reason we need legal methods, research and writing is that it will help us to write essays well and helps studentsRead MoreResearch Methodology And Legal Writing Essay3112 Words   |  13 Pages UNIVERSITY OF PETROLEUM ENERGY STUDIES CENTRE FOR CONTINUING EDUCATION LLM (ENERGY LAWS) SEMESTER 1 YEAR: 2015 SESSION: JULY ASSIGNMENT –1 FOR Research Methodology and Legal Writing (LLMC 701) NAME: MONICA RANI SAP NO/REGN NO: 500044979 Section A (20 Marks) Write short notes on any four of the following 1. Types of Research Ans: According to K. R. Kothari, types of research are: i. Descriptive and Analytical- Descriptive research describes the phenomenon andRead MoreLegal Writing Project 11900 Words   |  8 PagesTerriResse Jones 208 Southwind Dr. #14, Athens, AL 35611 #22026522, Legal Writing 1, #008033 Law Offices of Eliza Smith amp; Associates 5678 Barrister Row Clark, Pennsylvania 18112 (771) 333-4444 Fax (771) 333-4445 April 21, 2014 Jane P. Smith 123 Rock Road Clark, PA 18118 Re: File No. Smith-3-04 Dear Ms. Smith, This letter is to inform you, that your tax appeal hearing has been scheduled for March 6, 2005, at 10:30 a.m. The hearing will be held at the County OfficeRead MoreLegal Writing Interoffice Memorandum1629 Words   |  7 Pagesto research and provide all relevant information that will help to assist you in whether or not to take the case of Tom and Betty Thomas. Will David being a trespasser hurt their case? What information about attractive nuisance could be helpful? LEGAL ISSUES The son of Tom and Betty Thomas, David Thomas, drowned while swimming in a pool. The pool was located in an unoccupied home near the Thomas residence. David did not have permission from the homeowner to use the pool. In fact, the owner ofRead MoreGraded Project Legal Writing 1981 Words   |  4 PagesLegal Writing 1 Graded Project LAW OFFICES of ELIZA SMITH and ASSOCIATES 5678 BARRISTER ROW CLARK, PENNSYLVANIA 18112 (771) 333-4444 FAX (771) 333-4445 February 28, 2005 Jane P. Smith 123 Rock Road Clark, Pennsylvania 18118 RE: TAX ASSESSORS’ OFFICE HEARING NOTICE for TAX APPEAL Dear Ms. Jane P. Smith, I am contacting you in regards to your tax appeal in conjunction with Tax Map No.: 19-19-050-019-8. Our office has received notice of your hearing March 6, 2005 @ 10:35 a.mRead MoreEssay about Legal Research, Writing, And Analysis1462 Words   |  6 PagesIn this essay we will discuss the process of legal research, writing, and analysis. The subject matter will be presented in a clear, concise and objective manner. The textbook that we will be referencing is Gilbert Law Summaries: Legal Research, Writing, and Analysis 10th ed, BarBri Group, 2006. The US court system consists of a trial court, an appellate court, and a supreme or high court. The trial court is the first to hear the facts of a case and has original jurisdiction. The appellate courtRead MoreThe Paradigm for Predictive Legal Writing: IRAC Method 4783 Words   |  20 PagesResearch, Writing Advocacy 2006-07 THE PARADIGM FOR PREDICTIVE LEGAL WRITING: Using â€Å"IRAC† I. INTRODUCTION This handout sets out the basic paradigm, or organizational structure, of predictive legal analysis, referred to throughout this course as â€Å"IRAC.†1 IRAC is a general analytical paradigm; as you gain experience in your legal writing, you will be able to modify this paradigm to fit a particular legal issue. Once you understand the IRAC structure and are able to use it fluently, you can decideRead MoreEssay on Legal Writing Graded Project 11335 Words   |  6 Pagesyou to arrive at the County Office Building at 10:25 a.m. with all of the pictures you have of the comparable houses in your area. If you have aby further questions, please do not hesitate to call our office. Very truly yours, Carmen Bentley, legal assistant Carmen Bentley cc: Eliza Smith Exercise 2 THIS DEED Made the 8th day of November, in the year of Two Thousand and Fifteen (2015) Between Jane P. Smith, of the Township of Clark. Lackawanna County, Pennsylvania, hereinafter referredRead MoreLegal Writing Graded Project 2 - Petitioner1229 Words   |  5 PagesIN RE THE MARRIAGE OF SALLY BRIGHT PETITIONER V. MEMORANDUM JOHN BRIGHT RESPONDENT Comes Petitioner, by counsel, and for her Memorandum states as follows: I. FACTS Sally Bright (Petitioner), filed for divorce and custody of 14 year old daughter, Chastity. John Bright (Respondent) also requested custody. The court ordered temporary custody of the minor child to Petitioner and visitation with Respondent every weekend. Petitioner will be moving to another part of theRead MoreAssignment 4 Legal Research Writing and Civil Litigation1039 Words   |  5 PagesMary a proprietor of a small business in Vermont specializes in the manufacturing of ski equipment and sales to Vermont ski resorts. Mary signed a contract with Froogle that allows Mary’s business to advertise on Froogles search engine. Mary is aware that Froogles headquarters is in California. Mary has never done business or been in California. All business relating to Mary is done directly on the phone in Vermont or via the internet. Two months after Mary signed the contract Froogle alleges

Skin And Skin Contact Between A Mother And Her Baby

Skin-to-Skin Contact The power of first impressions is well known. None may be more significant than the first experiences of a newborn baby exiting mother s womb. My first impression of life outside the womb, the welcome reception we all receive immediately after birth, may color our perceptions of life as difficult or easy, hostile or safe, painful or comforting, frightening or reassuring, cold and lonely or warm and welcoming for a lifetime and this day was no exception as I had the opportunity to witness a vaginal delivery for the first time in my life. However, in this teaching project, I will talk about early skin-to-skin contact between a mother and her baby. The family that was assessed for the teaching project was a primigravida†¦show more content†¦The 3 behavioral objectives identified for the teaching project are: 1. By the end of the twenty-five minute teaching session, the family will be able to state the importance and purpose of early skin-to-skin contact. 2. By the end of the twenty-five minute teaching session, the family will be able to state three reasons why early skin-to-skin contact is beneficial to the mother and baby. 3. By the end of the twenty-five minute teaching session, the family will be able to state the process of early skin-to-skin contact. Outline of Content I. Process of early skin-to-skin contact A. Once the baby is born, the newborn will immediately be placed on the mother’s chest or breasts. B. A nurse will clean the newborn with a warm and dry towel while on the mother’s chest or breasts. C. Another nurse will be assessing the newborn while on the mother’s chest or breasts. D. Health Care Provider will be delivering the placenta. II. Importance of skin-to-skin contact A. The baby is more like to latch on well. B. Bonding between mother and the newborn. C. Providing warmth to the newborn. D. Provides exclusive breastfeeding during hospital stay. E. Potential calming

The Effect of Social Media in the Business World Free Essays

The Effect of Social Media in the Business World Imagine, for a moment, you are an employee in a business setting. Do you find yourself on Facebook, Twitter, or Pinterest during work? Perhaps you are reading information on Wikipedia or watching videos on YouTube? These are all forms of social media. Today our world is engulfed by it. We will write a custom essay sample on The Effect of Social Media in the Business World or any similar topic only for you Order Now These sites can be great tools to advertise for a business or to access information, but they can also be abused. In the workplace, social media can be a distraction to employees and make them less efficient. In today’s world, employers are always looking for a process to limit the abuse of these tools and to find means to utilize it instead, all while remaining cost efficient in terms of Hardware and Software. The research that follows uncovers the pros and cons of social media within a business. In addition, social media will be defined and facts will be included as to how many employees utilize these sites on a daily basis. It is also important for the owners of a company to discuss the legalities and hidden costs associated with the social media sites, in relation to businesses. Social Media Defined Social media is defined as a two way communication stream where the publisher and the reader can interact with each other (Nations). The most popular social media sites are Facebook, YouTube, and Twitter. Facebook is an online community that allows people to connect with friends, family, colleagues, and classmates. Facebook can also allow businesses to create profiles for advertising purposes. YouTube is a social media site that allows people to publish videos that anyone can access. This has become a way for people to get their name out there if they are waiting to be discovered in the music industry, comedy world, sports, and many other things. Twitter is a type of blogging site, where an individual records opinions or information on a regular basis. Twitter is called micro blogging because the users write short posts that are 140 characters or less (Senior Net). There are also Wiki sites. Wiki sites allow the users to write and edit the content contained on the site. The most common Wiki site is Wikipedia. Wikipedia is a very useful tool for learning information about a certain topic. Though is not a very reliable source for citing information because it is written by internet users (Senior Net). Social Media Use Is on the Rise Social networking sites have become part of most Americans everyday lives. According to Joanna Brenner of Pew Internet, â€Å"sixty nine percent of online adults use a social networking site. † The most common site used by internet users is Facebook. This includes employees during the working hours. According to Janie Smith of The City Wire an average person checks their email or Facebook 34 times a day collectively. This number is substantial compared to years previous; and if the employees of a company are checking social media sites during the work day for personal reasons, it lessens productivity. Many companies have put in social media policies to restrict the use of the sites during the day. According to a study done by Benjamin Shipley III a lawyer for Cross, Gunter, Witherspoon and Galchus P. C. , the largest problem is: â€Å"fifty percent of employees ignore these policies and check their sites. † Mobile Devices make it easy for the employees to still access social media sites during the work day. In a study done by Pew Internet American Life Project, forty six percent of Americans are now using smartphones, making these sites accessible right at the employees’ fingertips. Facebook sites can be open for anyone to see and social media sites are starting to become a place that future employers will look when they are doing background checks on possible future employees. A study done by Benjamin Shipley III states, â€Å"it has become a common practice to check out the future employees social networking sites before hiring them. Sixty percent of employers currently observe this practice. With that being said, it is very important that individuals are more cautious to the information they are exploiting to the world. Legalities Surrounding Social Media The battle of between the appropriateness of published information on social networking sites has started to take off. People do not understand the difference between freedom of speech and defamation. Freedom of speech is t he right to express opinions without censorship or restraint, while defamation is a false or malicious accusation of someone’s words or actions (Merriam-Webster). Many lawsuits have arisen because of this misunderstanding. Social media sites have affected employees’ style of communication, productivity, and separation of work and personal. Today there is not as much face-to-face communication in the work place because it is faster and more efficient to communicate over the internet. A huge risk factor of using social media in the business world is the safety. Social media is not very secure so it is very easy for private company information to be shared. Companies need to have plans in place how to deal with problems that arise from social media (Rauzi). Positive Uses of Social Media Businesses Although many people and employees view social media as a bad thing within the workplace, positive aspects do exist. Social media sites such as Facebook and LinkedIn are great tools for companies to get their name out in the public eye. It is a very easy way with little cost and advertising to acquire a new circle of contacts. With social networking, the company can create a pleasing image of themselves by creating their own professional page. Social networking being virtually free is one of the greatest advantages to using the sites. Businesses can pay thousands of dollars in advertisements but with social media the only cost is paying the person who keeps the sites up to date (Kelleher). The sites are also useful tools for gathering public opinions on the product that a company sells. In a study done by McKinsey Global Institute, â€Å"ninety percent of the 4,200 businesses surveyed said they benefit from social networking in some way. † Brand awareness and sales are increased by social media sites because the name is out in the business network. Social media helps bring the customers closer to the business because they know more of what is going on within (Rauzi). Overlooked Expenses of Social Media for Businesses Many businesses see social media as a free tool, but there are many hidden costs that are not considered. As mentioned previously, staff is paid to keep the sites up to date. If a company wants their social media sites to be successful, they need an excellent marketer that will always keep the sites up to date, which costs money. Paid marketing will be needed to initially get the companies name noticed. For example, having a paid advertisement banner on Facebook costs money (Compare Business). There is also the cost of equipment. Most companies have up to date computer software that would support the use of social media, but not all do. The server needs to be large enough to handle all the traffic going through it. If a company wants a very successful internet campaign, the annual cost is approximately 210,600 dollars (Compare Business). Sometimes, a company needs to spend money to make money. Conclusion Social Media is a very useful tool for the business world as long as the employees do not abuse it. The benefits do outweigh the risks of having a social media friendly company. Employers just need to set boundaries for their employees so that they know what acceptable use of the sites is. Along with setting the boundaries, the employers also have to enforce them so that they will be effective. Social media is not a free way of advertising, but it is very low cost in comparison to other techniques. Overall social media is a very useful tool for companies, especially as business continues to be in a digital world. Works Cited Brenner, Joanna. Pew Research Center’s Internet ; American Life Project. † Pew Internet: Social Networking (full detail). 13 Nov. 2012. Pew Internet American Life Project. 31 Dec. 2012 http://pewinternet. org/Commentary/2012/March/Pew-Internet-Social-Networking-full-detail. aspx. Madden, Mary. â€Å"Pew Research Center’s Internet American Life Project. † 65% of online adults use social networking sites. 26 Aug. 2011. Pew Research Ce nter. 01 Jan. 2013 http://pewinternet. org/Reports/2011/Social-Networking-Sites. aspx. Nations, Daniel. â€Å"What is Social  Media? About. com Web Trends. 1 Jan. 2013 http://webtrends. about. com/od/web20/a/social-media. htm. New, Catherine. â€Å"Smartphones Are Used By Nearly Half Of Americans. † The Huffington Post. 01 Mar. 2012. TheHuffingtonPost. com. 8 Jan. 2013 http://www. huffingtonpost. com/2012/03/01/most-americans-have-a-smartphone_n_1314914. html. Rauzi, Molly. â€Å"The social workplace: Are you prepared? † – Denver Business Journal. 1 Oct. 2012. Denver Business Journal. 01 Jan. 2013 http://www. bizjournals. com/denver/blog/broadway_17th/2012/10/the-soci How to cite The Effect of Social Media in the Business World, Papers

Maker of Smartphone Surveillance App Fined and Avoids Jail Time

Question: Write an essay on "Maker; of Smartphone Surveillance App Fined and Avoids Jail Time". Answer: Introduction Ethics as a branch of philosophy that allows people to critically examine their own arguments and intuitions about any vital issue; however, the establishment of a clear cut to those arguments may seem to be obvious at first glance (Alexander Miller, 2009). Hence, the application of ethics normally looks at the development one has in asking and answering questions as it is from them learning from the answers that other people offer suggestions (Szerletics, 2015). Therefore, in the application of ethics look at the world in a different way and try to find out coherent and rational answers to the questions people ask about the society. The Scenario Maker; of Smartphone Surveillance App Fined and Avoids Jail Time The case that I will be looking at is that of the first surveillance app that was used to track and catch cheating spouses by listening to their calls. The 31-year-old Hammad Akbar admitted before the court that he had broken the law without knowledge. The case against this young CEO was one of its kind, this is because there existed no other surveillance app in the technological market of Smartphones. In his defense he states that if he knew he was committing unlawful act he couldnt have developed the app. Therefore, the prosecutor decided instead of him serving a jail term he should pay more than half a million dollars. The Stakeholders: Therefore, in developing our argument the question that we should ask ourselves is whether it is ethically rights to keep surveillance of our spouses using the app developed by Hammad. According to some prosecutors in this case they argue that hundreds of people globally have been monitored through the app. An estimate was taken and it was believed that ten of thousand were still going to be monitored using the app. Therefore, ethically we can conclude that the development of the app tends to affect privacy and confidentiality of individuals which isnt good for many people. Looking at some ethical definitions of the terms privacy and confidentiality, Privacy takes the definition of control over the extent of timing and sharing of a particular circumstance. Therefore, privacy is the rights an individual has and is limited to access by others, and by law privacy is considered to be a human basic right (In Coons In Weber, 2013). On the other hand, confidentiality is the act of protecting a persons privacy. Hence, looking at the above given definitions what can be ethically certain is that the development of the surveillance app is ethically wrong this is because it interferes with a persons basic human right of privacy according to law. Non-Ethical Issues The Utilitarians who are part of the classical theory tends to argue that the establishment of privacy comes out to be a universal value. Therefore, it is necessarily connected to some important aspects like dignity and well-being (Robins Jones, 2009). Therefore, their absolutist view of privacy value tends to be absolutely essential. Hence, the response of their arguments is that they focus on individuals who have achieved well-being and dignity in the society which fail to have any amount of privacy that we can value (Oxley, 2011). Relating our case of the surveillance app with the Utilitarians view it becomes certain that the CEO actions were ethically wrong. Take the example of a person who uses the app for the wrong purposes to monitor or keep track of another person so as to lower his dignity. Therefore, if he succeeds in ruining the dignity and well-being of the person it means the app is a threat to the community. Hence, such an act will lead to the disconnection between uni versal values that are necessary in the society so as to connect the vital moral features and dignity of individuals. Ethical Issues Ethically the development of the surveillance app tends to affect confidentiality. According to some researchers they pertain that it is vital for one to protect and safeguard information that has been entrusted to him, and he shouldnt misuse or wrongfully disclose the information. Hence, there is the need of maintaining a promise of confidentiality. Therefore, ethically the duty of confidentiality should always be balanced between competing ethical considerations or there should be proper establishment of legal or professional requirements (Oxley, 2011). For instance, in our case in exceptional or compelling circumstance where one must monitor his or her spouse, perhaps there should be report information to the authorities so as to monitor the actions that a fellow spouse may undertake after identifying that he or she is cheating on him with another person. But, in our case ethically the surveillance app developed by Akbar fails to consider the ethics aspect of maintaining confident iality. This is because they are unable to keep record of the aftermath and individual has taken or fails to monitor the steps one has taken after identifying the truth about his spouse. Hence, such an app tends to be a threat to the society; this is because it brings chaos and family break ups. Therefore, such an app shouldnt be acceptable for usage unless the following steps are considered: Consequences: From the surveillance case, one thing that is evident is that the app is expected to monitor calls that your fellow spouse is receiving and listening through their conversation. Hence, situations may arise where one doesnt know what he or she should do. Perhaps, Akbar may consider offering some guidance or recommend for couple therapies before one decides to use the app. taking this step will somehow reduce chaos in the society and prevent individuals from committing regretful acts. Ethical Analysis Consequentialism Looking at some ethical definitions of the terms privacy and confidentiality, Privacy takes the definition of control over the extent of timing and sharing of a particular circumstance. Therefore, privacy is the rights an individual has and is limited to access by others, and by law privacy is considered to be a human basic right (In Coons In Weber, 2013). On the other hand, confidentiality is the act of protecting a persons privacy. Hence, looking at the above given definitions what can be ethically certain is that the development of the surveillance app is ethically wrong this is because it interferes with a persons basic human right of privacy according to law. Just Consequentialism In terms of dealing with the privacy aspect, ethically I could recommend that the application software be illegal for uses unless under special circumstances. Reason being there might be individuals who use the app so as to destroy others. Hence, making the app illegal may perhaps reduce the levels of its usage. Options It is customary process in ethical thinking is that, if you cant be getting any solution then first you have to stop the thing first, after that you will get that what are the other alternate option we can try Now you have to set a landmark for the purpose of including all the people going to affected by this action if it is carried out. Try to know the other facts and information its likely consequences for different option, in this condition, the app creator should identify who is going to use the app. Choose the app for group of selected people, what are the outcomes when they going to use. Make different app for different group of people, make inherent identifying source code so that people can be tracked while misusing it. conclusion In conclusion it is vital for one to consider individuals privacy and confidentiality when monitoring him or her. Some information may fall on wrong hand or be used for evil purposes against an individual. Hence, this tends to lower the moral standards in the society after one well-being and dignity is destroyed (Carson, 2010). References Ethical theory and moral practice. (2008). Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Ethical Theory and Moral Practice. (n.d.). Kluwer Academic Publishers. Oxley, J. C. (2011).The moral dimensions of empathy: Limits and applications in ethical theory and practice. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan. In Coons, C., In Weber, M. (2013).Paternalism: Theory and practice. Robins, N. A., Jones, A. (2009).Genocides by the oppressed: Subaltern genocide in theory and practice. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. Szerletics, A. (2015).Paternalism: Moral theory and legal practice. Alexandra, A, Miller, S, (2009).Ethics in practice moral theory and the professions.

Biological Explanations of Schizophrenia free essay sample

Describe and evaluate biological explanations of schizophrenia (24 marks) Schizophrenia is a psychotic disorder characterized by distorted thinking, impaired emotional responses, poor interpersonal skills and a distortion of reality. It is the most common of psychotic disorders that, in most countries around the world, affects around 1 per cent of the population. In terms of explanations for the disorder, two central types of explanations arise – psychological explanations and biological explanations. Whereas psychological explanations tend to focus on cognitive, emotional and environmental factors that may cause the disorder, biological explanations tend to focus on genetic, biochemical and neuro-anatomical factors as the cause of the disorder. One biological explanation of schizophrenia is ‘the genetic hypothesis’. Schizophrenia appears to run in families, and Gottesman (1991) has shown through a series of controlled genetic correlational studies that the likelihood of an individual developing schizophrenia is proportional to the amount of genes they share with somebody affected by schizophrenia. We will write a custom essay sample on Biological Explanations of Schizophrenia or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page For example, children with two schizophrenic parents have a concordance rate of 46 per cent, monozygotic (MZ) twins have a concordance rate of 48 per cent, and dizygotic (DZ) twins have a concordance rate of 17 per cent. However, from these studies it has also been made clear that genetic factors cannot be the only explanation for schizophrenia. Although genetic studies support the argument for a genetic basis for the disorder, they have also shown that even when the relative is genetically identical – like monozygotic twins – the chance of developing schizophrenia is below 50 per cent. This implies therefore, that heredity factors are not the primary cause of schizophrenia, other factors are clearly involved. In addition to this, many researchers have suggested that the reason that schizophrenia appears to run in families could be due to common rearing patterns and that genetic factors are comparatively uninvolved. Research on expressed emotion shows that negative emotional climates that are high in expressed emotion could lead to stress beyond an individual’s coping mechanisms, and could thus trigger a schizophrenic episode (Linzen et al, 1997), further exemplifying the importance of environmental factors in the onset of schizophrenia. In an attempt to disentangle controversy surrounding genetic and environmental factors, twin studies and adoption studies have been carried out. With twin studies the underlying assumption has been that monozygotic twins will show a greater concordance rate than dizygotic twins as they are genetically identical, and many studies have supported this assumption. Although many twin studies do consistently reveal a greater concordance rate in monozygotic twins than dizygotic twins, the extent to which this is the case varies greatly. For example, Cardno et al (2002) showed a concordance rate of 26. 5 per cent for monozygotic twins and 0 per cent for dizygotic twins based on the ‘Maudsley Twin Register’, compared to Joseph (2004) who, when using pooled data for all schizophrenia twin studies carried out prior to 2001, found a concordance rate of 40. 4 per cent in monozygotic twins and 7. 4 per cent for dizygotic twins. There are several issues with this kind of research, however. As only 1 per cent of the population is schizophrenic and around 0.3 per cent of the population are monozygotic twins, statistically only 0. 003 per cent of the entire population is a schizophrenic monozygotic twin. This means that sample sizes in these studies are usually very small and so researchers have difficulty generalizing results to the entire population. In addition, twin studies do not all use the same diagnostic criteria and so comparisons cannot always be made (McGuffin et al, 1984), and concordance rates can be calculated in different ways and vary depending on the method used – meaning that twin studies can lack reliability. Also a crucial assumption underlying twin studies is that, in general, the environments for monozygotic and dizygotic twins are equivalent and therefore the greater concordance rate in monozygotic twins is due to genetic factors. As Joseph (2004) pointed out, however, this is not always the case. Monozygotic twins are more likely to be treated in a similar way, encounter more similar environments, and be to be thought of as ‘the twins’ rather than two separate individuals. This, in turn, can lead to ‘identity confusion’ and so potentially a higher concordance rate amongst monozygotic twins. Therefore Joseph argues that the greater concordance rate seen in monozygotic twins than in dizygotic twins is a result of the differing attitudes and environments experienced by the two types of twins. Adoption studies have also been used to determine whether home environment or genetic disposition are more influential in the causation of schizophrenia, as usually in twin studies twins are both genetically related and experience the same environment. Kety (1994) found high rates of schizophrenia in individuals whose biological parents were schizophrenic but were adopted by psychologically healthy parents. The most methodologically sound of adoption studies, though, was carried out by Tienari et al (2000) in Finland. In the study 164 adoptees whose biological mothers were schizophrenic were compared to 197 adoptees whose mothers were psychologically healthy. It was found that 6. 7 per cent of the experimental group (those with schizophrenic mothers) developed schizophrenia compared to just 2 per cent of individuals in the control group, suggesting that genetic factors are indeed involved. Despite this, there are still potential problems with adoption studies. It is assumed that adoptees are not ‘selectively placed’ and are randomly allocated to families. In countries like the US, for example, potential adoptive parents would be aware of the child’s biological family and so be aware of any family history of schizophrenia. This could lead to differences in the type of adoptive parents and thus could account for some of the differences seen in the development of schizophrenia between adoptees whose biological mother was schizophrenic and adoptees whose biological mother was psychologically healthy. Another biological explanation of schizophrenia is to do with biochemical factors, including the ‘dopamine hypothesis’. The dopamine hypothesis states that the positive symptoms of schizophrenia are produced by overactivity of synapses that use dopamine as a transmitter substance. A variety of drugs used in the treatment of schizophrenia could support the dopamine hypothesis. Phenothiazines, for example, that work by blocking dopamine at the synapse, have been effective in alleviating major symptoms of schizophrenia. L-dopa, used for the treatment of Parkinson’s disease, could also support the dopamine hypothesis. The drug works by increasing dopamine levels, but this has also been known to simultaneously provoke the development of schizophrenic-type symptoms (Grilly,2002). Amphetamines, used as stimulant drugs that act by increasing the availability of dopamine and noradrenaline in the brain, can also induce severe symptoms of paranoid schizophrenia in those who were previously unaffected by the disorder. Evidence from PET scans can also support the dopamine hypothesis. For example, Wong et al (1986) found a two-fold increase in the density of dopamine receptor sites in schizophrenic patients that had never been treated with drugs compared to schizophrenic patients who had been treated with drugs. Issues with the dopamine hypothesis are in abundance in spite of supporting evidence. Drugs used to treat schizophrenia, like phenothiazines, do not work for everybody and, even when they do, only alleviate the positive symptoms of schizophrenia. Also, post-mortem examinations used as evidence to support the dopamine hypothesis are usually carried out on patients that have been taking neuroleptic drugs for years, meaning that it is difficult to tell whether alterations in dopamine receptor sites were caused by schizophrenia or the drugs themselves. It has, in fact, been found that the drugs used to treat schizophrenia by blocking dopamine activity can, paradoxically, increase it as neurons struggle to compensate for the sudden deficiency. Haracz (1982), in a review of post-mortem studies of schizophrenics, found that many of those who displayed elevated dopamine levels were receiving antipsychotic drugs shortly before death. Although it is likely that dopamine is implicated in producing several symptoms of schizophrenia, it is an oversimplified explanation on its own. A third explanation for schizophrenia, are neuro-anatomical factors which are present in the structures of the brain. This explanation, supported by studies, states that schizophrenia maybe caused by abnormal sizes of neuro-anatomical structures in the brain. Buchsbaum (1990), for example, used PET scans to reveal reduced cerebral blood flow to the frontal lobes (specifically the frontal hippocampus and the amygdale) in the brains of schizophrenic patients. Frontal lobes, which are imperative in higher-intellectual thinking, have also been shown to be smaller in schizophrenic patients than in those who are psychologically healthy. Research into ventricles, which are cavities that store cerebro-spinal fluid in the brain, have also revealed that these are larger in people with schizophrenia than in those without (Brown et al, 1986). Interestingly, this was only the case for men and not for women. Despite the fact that abnormalities have been found in neuro-anatomical structures in the brains of schizophrenic patients, findings have been controversial and it has been occasionally difficult to pinpoint exactly how these abnormalities could be causing schizophrenic symptoms. Furthermore, a reoccurring mediating factor in research into neuro-anatomical structures is that patients that are studied have usually been schizophrenic for years, and therefore have been taking antipsychotic drugs for this length of time. This means that it is sometimes difficult to distinguish between the effects that schizophrenia has had on the brain of schizophrenic patients and the effects of the antipsychotic drugs. Another issue has been that abnormalities in neuro-anatomical structures have not been found in the brains of all schizophrenic patients, leading researchers, such as Crow (1985), to believe that there is more than one type of schizophrenia. These are: â€Å"Type 1† schizophrenia: a genetically inherited condition that is characterized by positive symptoms such as hallucinations and responds well to antipsychotic medication and â€Å"Type 2† schizophrenia: a neuro-developmental disorder that arises from prenatal insults (factors that might have an effect on the baby whilst it is in the womb) and perinatal insults (problems that could occur around the time of birth). This type of schizophrenia does not respond well to antipsychotic medication. By distinguishing between two types of schizophrenia it has been possible for other researchers to settle some of the controversy surrounding research data. Having said this, the two types of schizophrenia cannot explain research whereby schizophrenic patients have shown both positive and negative symptoms, and so this ‘two-syndrome hypothesis’ could be deemed as over-simplistic. To conclude, while there is evidence to suggest that biological factors are clearly involved in the development of schizophrenia, there is also evidence to suggest that biological factors are not the only factors involved. For example, although monozygotic twins consistently show a higher concordance rate than dizygotic twins, monozygotic twins never show a conclusive 100 per cent concordance rate. This suggests that possibly environmental and cognitive factors may also be strongly involved. Taking biological factors as the only explanation would be too reductionist because of the multi-factorial nature of the complex disorder itself. Since it is unlikely that a single cause to the disorder can be identified, most researchers now accept an integrative approach that works on the principles of the diathesis-stress model (Zubin Spring, 1977). The diathesis-stress model draws together biological, environmental and psychological explanations for the onset and maintenance of schizophrenia. The model attempts to explain schizophrenia as a genetic predispositional vulnerability and the extent to which it develops in severity may lie within the individual’s experience of stress from life experiences, combined with issues within the individual’s uniqueness in terms of his/her personality factors (Barlow Durand, 2009). Because arange of individual differences exist between sufferers in their vulnerability to the development of this serious disorder, arguably, this model could be the most plausible account for the onset and maintenance of such a complex and universal disorder as schizophrenia is. To summarise, it is therefore a useful model for the purposes of understanding the complex interplay of ‘nature and nurture’ in the susceptibility to psychological disorders like schizophrenia, being experienced acutely and or chronically (as a lifespan prognosis).

Gasoline Prices Essays - Petroleum Politics, Commodity Markets

Gasoline Prices Essays - Petroleum Politics, Commodity Markets Gasoline Prices The price of gasoline is a major interest to almost everyone in the country and almost everywhere in the world. It seems that every month and sometimes more frequently, gas prices are either spiking or dropping, never staying stable. Gasoline prices are affected by many factors, including the price of crude oil in the world market, supply and demand for gasoline, local market competition, temporary supply interruptions, government regulations, or taxes. Gasoline is produced by a distillation process where crude oil is heated and fumes are captured and converted into many products such as kerosene, jet fuel, and gasoline to name a few. Therefore the price of crude oil, which is extracted from oil wells beneath the earths surface, is a major factor in gas prices. The five leading oil-producing countries and their approximate shares of the world supply of oil are: Soviet Union 21%, Saudi Arabia 17%, The United States 15%, Venezuela 4%, and Mexico 4%. These five countries made up 61 % of the worlds oil production back in 1980. Even though The United States is a major producer of oil, it does not make them self-sufficient. The United States uses more oil than they can produce and must look towards foreign countries. An organization called O.P.E.C. controls approximately four fifths of the worlds oil reserves in the non-communist world. The United States is forced to deal with O.P.E.C., not only in its own interests, but also in the inter est of its allies and in the interest of maintaining peace. The former Soviet Union may now have an interest in selling some of their oil that they have a tremendous amount of. O.P.E.C. which stands for Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries, is made up of 13 countries: Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Venezuela, Qatar, Indonesia, Libya, United Arab Emirates, Algeria, Nigeria, Ecuador, and Gabon. O.P.E.C. was founded in Baghdad, Iraq in September of 1960. It was organized in response to oil producing countries that did not consult with the Middle Eastern oil states before lowering their crude oil prices. The producers feared that other countries would establish monopolies. The aim of O.P.E.C. was to create a universal price between the countries, in order to ensure peace between oil producers throughout the world. O.P.E.C. also wanted to provide its members with technical and economic support in times of need, since not all the countries were completely stable. The headquart ers were initially set in Geneva, but were later moved to Vienna in 1965. O.P.E.C.s goal was to establish firmly unified prices amongst their members, but the organization was not always successful. In their quest for control over the world market of oil production, they have ran into several obstacles and setbacks. O.P.E.C. has barely survived being eliminated due to internal conflicts amongst its members. Since O.P.E.C. almost has a strangle hold on the worlds oil supply, The United States is extremely concerned with the areas instability. The Middle East and the Persian Gulf area, where most of the members are located, are extremely prone to wars, both civil and cross borders, plagued by religious battles, and positions of power are frequently overthrown, making it hard for any stability to come out of the area. Any time there is chaos in the Middle East, The United States thinks back on memories of other troubles in the Persian Gulf area: the Arab oil embargo in 1973-74, the Iranian revolution in 1979-80 and Saddam Husseins invasion of Kuwait in 1990. (1) The area is also vital to our allies, who would be crippled without Gulf oil, whose livelihood we are dependent on. In 1973 O.P.E.C. raised oil prices 70%. The dominant Middle Eastern members of O.P.E.C. used succeeding price increases as a political weapon aimed at Western nations in retaliation for their support of Israel against its Arab neighbors in the so-called Yom Kippur War of October 1973. Prices were accordingly raised another 130% at the Tehran conference of December 1973, and a temporary embargo was placed on the United States and the Netherlands at the same time. Other prices increases followed in 1975, 1977, 1979, and 1980, which ultimately raised the price of a barrel of crude oil from United States $3.00

Eugenics and the Horrors of Genocide in Nazi Germany Essay - 1

Eugenics and the Horrors of Genocide in Nazi Germany - Essay Example In the 1870s industrialization began to create a thriving economy in Germany, but a wide gap between wealth created a society in which was exacerbated by a lack of infrastructure. The population was growing at a rate that was not in step with the provisions that were available at a social level. Mortality rates began to skyrocket and the development of a definable issue meant that solutions would soon also emerge. Medical ‘advances’ began to define the meaning of human existence, often through the delusions of prejudiced theories that supported an idea that there were a human race and a series of sub-human races. During the time between the 1870s and the 1930s, a relationship had developed between American eugenics experts and German scientists with the same goals. In the 1930s, however, the relationship became strained. The racism that developed in Nazi Germany involving those of an ethnic Jewish background became an issue of contention and the American scientists were not interested in the idea that being Jewish meant being inferior. One of the clear signs that the racism was infecting the society of Germany is that of the Nuremberg laws which stated that those with Jewish heritage in their background would not be allowed to have citizenship. Decrees began to emerge that were further and further limiting the rights of those with ethnic Jewish ancestry, creating a prejudicial climate that began to define the nature of the beliefs as being centered on the heritage that broke the code of acceptable genetics which was growing in the nation.

Should China be Promoting Big Business Groups Essay

Should China be Promoting Big Business Groups - Essay Example As the discussion stresses Chinas enterprise groups have performed better than any other enterprise. They are competitive and ready for the challenge of improving the nation’s economy. They have driven the economy of china to a higher level. The process of transforming these enterprises is better known as Jituanhua. By 2004, china transformed about 2692 enterprises into enterprise groups. This enterprise groups provided employment for almost 30 million people in china. Their output has grown up to 21% annually. These enterprise groups expanded more as many more companies joined in to work together.From this paper it is clear that  China has adopted the East Asian style to development. This started all the way from 1980s when it was realized to be one of the fast growing economies in East Asia. They key models imitated by the Chinese economy from other already developed states in East Asia are state controls over the finance, government intervention in state firms, substituti ng imports in some industries and high export activities. A lot of saving and investment is also encouraged locally. Much similarity is noticed between Taiwan and china since they both have private and state enterprise sectors that play the crucial role in their development strategies.  It is surprising that this was the case even though china shared most of the affected sector with other East Asian countries.... This started all the way from 1980s when it was realized to be one of the fast growing economies in East Asia. They key models imitated by the Chinese economy from other already developed states in East Asia are state controls over the finance, government intervention in state firms, substituting imports in some industries and high export activities. A lot of saving and investment is also encouraged locally. Much similarity is noticed between Taiwan and china since they both have private and state enterprise sectors that play the crucial role in their development strategies. In 1997 and 1998, there was a financial crisis that affected the East Asian countries though china was affected at a minimal degree. It is surprising that this was the case even though china shared most of the affected sector with other East Asian countries. The East Asian financial crisis According to (Yang & Tyes, 1999), the East Asian countries were doing remarkably well in the financial development around the year 1997. Financial and currency crisis affected this greatly. Many economies in this region that had expanded started to slow down. This era experienced currency depreciations. According to (Yang & Tyes, 1999) â€Å"The external crisis combined with domestic reforms and with the changes that were taking place in the macroeconomic policy to retard overall economic growth and an increase in employment.† The Chinese people had long valued the culture of saving and using the savings future which saved china’s economy from collapsing like the rest of the East Asian states. Japan experienced a drop in investment to about a tenth in the years 1997-1998. In some countries, the economy declined by a half. Production of

Wilsonianism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Wilsonianism - Essay Example Since Woodrow’s fourteen points provided a succinct plan for world peace, they formed part of the Treaty of Versailles. Notably, not all points were encompassed in the treaty, which ultimately resulted in its partial success. Although the Treaty of Versailles was successful, it failed substantially in its enforcement and its inherent human element. Woodrow’s fourteen points invigorated the idealistic notion of peace in the absence of victors. Woodrow’s fourteen points incorporated in the Treaty of Versailles include self determination and the League of Nations augmenting idealistic notions that concluded that the war’s aim was to end all other wars. The treaty reflected European countries’ need to end Germany’s power and affirm their own. Through the self-determination point, Woodrow points showed that some of the causes of the war, for instance, imperialism and nationalism were avoidable. This was because, theoretically, countries demanding recognition would acquire it through the world ruling countries; the US, France, Italy, France and Britain. Conversely, Woodrow’s point on the League of Nations argued that the influence of the League of Nation would unite the countries of the world and deter the incident of another war. In addition to self determination and the establishment of democracy through the League of Nations, Treaty of Versailles also incorporated Woodrow’s points on free trade, as well as open agreements. Notably, Woodrow’s points 1-13 were not encompassed in the treaty in order to give leeway for the incorporation of the League of Nations in the final treaty (Niall 74). Since the treaty failed to incorporate the first to the thirteenth points, the treaty failed to address the real causes of the war and left an imbalance of power in Europe, thereby paving the way for another war during which Germany claimed that the Treaty of Versailles was unfair. The treaty should

Antibacterial Properties of Compounds from S. Frutescens

Antibacterial Properties of Compounds from S. Frutescens Kabir Prema Introduction Rationale There are approximately 6.1 million people living with the Human Immunodeficiency Virus and Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome in South Africa (Unaids.org, 2014). People with HIV/Aids have a higher risk of getting secondary infections and diseases such as Tuberculosis, which is the cause of many deaths in South Africa (Tbfacts.org, 2014). About 5.5 million people in South Africa are infected with Tuberculosis (Salim S. Abdool Karim, 2009). I have chosen to research and experiment on the Sutherlandia frutescens because it has anti-bacterial and anti-HIV properties (Katerere and Eloff, 2014). I also have a keen interest in alternative medicines so researching and testing a plant with many diverse properties such as S. frutescens will be an interesting and fruitful experience for me. Hypothesis Compounds extracted from S. frutescens have antibacterial properties. Aim: To test three extraction methods (water, ethanol and acetone) on S. frutescens, to see which method will have the most effective anti-bacterial properties on two different strains of bacteria (E. coli, S. epidermidis). Research and Experimental Methodology: For this project I will rely on secondary research. Which includes research articles and information from websites on the S. frutescens, extraction methods of antibacterial compounds and statistics regarding specific diseases affecting South Africa. I will also be doing primary research such as using different extraction methods to extract the antibacterial compounds from S. frutescens. I will testing the extracts on two different strains of bacteria. Limitations The limitations that I would face in my research task would be the reliability of the research articles I used with regards to the S.frutescens. The strains of bacteria that I’m using are harmful to human beings. Review of Literature Source 1: Title: A review of the taxonomy, ethnobotany, chemistry and pharmacology of Sutherlandia frutescens (Fabaceae). Authors: B-E. van Wyk, C. Albrecht Year of publication: 2008 Summary: The article is a review of many different articles on S. frutescens. The article focuses on the chemistry and ethnopharmacology of S. frutescens. It names the ailments that S. frutescens is used to treat ailments such as urinary tract infections and HIV. It’s also used as an antibacterial and anti-inflammatory. Its has been shown that S. frutescens has been widely used as a medication by various groups in South Africa particularly the in the Western Cape. Validity: This article is review of many different articles and most of the  information is derived from other articles concerning  S. frutescens and its properties and uses. Reliability: This article is from the Journal of Ethnopharmacology, which is published on the journal publishing site elsevier.com. The journal was also reviewed by a board of editors from many  different countries. Evidence use to support conclusion: The leaves of the Sutherlandia frutescens have antibacterial properties. Recent studies on this plant have mostly focused on the anti-cancer, anti-HIV, anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, analgesic and antibacterial activities. Usefulness: The article describes the many uses and properties of S. frutescens such as it’s antibacterial properties, it’s anti-inflammatory and its anti-HIV properties. The article also goes over the many uses of S. frutescens ov Limitations: The article doesn’t elaborate on much on the antibacterial activities of S.frutescens The article doesn’t show methods of extracting S.frutescens. Author Credentials: B-E. van Wyk is a professor at the University  of Johannesburg and teaches undergraduate plant taxonomy,  postgraduate taxonomy, systematics, chemosystematics of African  plant families, medical plant chemistry and ethnobotany. Source 2: Title: Antibacterial and Antioxidant Activity of Sutherlandia frutescens (Fabaceae), A Reputed Anti-HIV/AIDS Phytomedicine Authors: David R. Katerere†  and Jacobus N. Eloff* Year of publication: 2005 Summary: The article describes the extraction methods that were used to extract S.frutescens The article also describes the how the different extracts where tested on different strains of bacteria. The article is about the antibacterial and antioxidant activity of S.frutescens. The second method of extraction produced a greater yield than the first method of extraction. Validity: The first extraction method used five grams of a commercially available leaf sample of Sutherlandia frutescens (Sutherlandia/ Unwele ®). The Sutherlandia frutescens (Sutherlandia/ Unwele ®) sample was consecutively extracted three times using different substances, first with Hexane (coded SF-H), then by dichloromethane (DCM) (SF-D), then by acetone (SF-A) and finally by ethylacetate (SF-E). The second method consisted of splitting a leaf sample of a Sutherlandia frutescens into three portions weighing 5g each. The portions where portions where extracted separately twice with acetone, ethanol and water. Each extract was then dried using a rotary evaporator and weighed. The aqueous extract was then freeze dried. Reliability: S, frutescens was extracted using two different extraction methods. Evidence use to support conclusion: The total yield of all four solvents in the first method of extraction was 10.5%. In the second extraction method, acetone extracted 5.6%. Ethanol extracted 12.6% while eater extracted 17.2%. Usefulness: It’s useful as it gives methods to extract the active ingredient  from the plant. Limitations: The article doesn’t give a testing method that I can easily perform at school. Author’s Credentials David R. Katerere† : Specialist Scientist at SA MRC, Visiting  scientist at Scynexis, visiting scientist at UNINA, trainee  Pharmacist at Drug Tech Pharmacy, Chief Bioanalyst at  PAREXEL, Postdoc at University of Pretoria Jacobus N. Eloff*: Gold Medal for Science for Society  Academy for Science of South Africa (September 2012), Gold  medal of the South African Academy for Science and Art is  awarded for Scientific and Technological Achievement, Bronze  medal from the International Horticultural Society (December  2008) in recognition of the organising the World Conference on Medical and Aromatic Plants. Source 3: Title: Five Ochna species have high antibacterial activity and more  than ten antibacterial compounds Authors: Tshepiso J. Makhafola1 Jacobus N. Eloff1 Year of publication: 2011 Summary: The article is about the antibacterial activities of five Ochna species. Leaf samples where extracted using different mediums from the leaf. The extracts were tested against various strains of bacteria. Validity: The dried leaf powder was extracted with 20mL of acetone. The solution was then shaken in 50 mL centrifuge tubes and  centrifuged for 15 minutes at 4000 rpm. The extracts were  decanted through into glass vials through filter papers and the  solution was concentrated to dryness with a stream of cold air. Only clean and dry leaves were selected, the selected leaves had no blemishes or dirt. The leaves were not washed with water as the water would possibly extract some water-soluble compounds, and to limit the posibilty of fungal growth on the leaves due to the moisture left on the surface due to the water. The leaves were dried at room temperature in the dark. The leaves were then made into a fine powder, with the particles being less than 1 mm in diameter. The leaves were then stored in sealed glass bottles in the dark to reduce chemical changes in the compounds present in the leaves. Reliability: There were no competing interests the article. Evidence use to support conclusion: The percentage yield in acetone between the five species was: O. gamostigmata (8%), followed by O. pulchdra, (7.5%), O. serullata (7%) O. pretorienses and O. natalitia ((2.5%) Usefulness: This article shows different extraction methods and it also gives  a suggestion to which extraction method and solvent worked  the best to extract the particular compounds. It provides detailed  images, tables and graphs which makes it easier to view the data  that was collected. Limitations: Only gives information about on genus of plant (Ochna) and there is no information of S. frutescens. Author’s Credentials Kobus (Jacobus N) Eloff: Gold Medal for Science for Society,  Eskom award for capacity development, Gold medal of the South  African Academy for Science and Art is awarded for Scientific  and Technological Achievement, Gold Medal for Botany Tshepiso Makhafola: Attended the University of Pretoria from  2008-2010. He has skills and expertise in research, molecular  biology and biotechnology. Source 4: Title: Influence of Sutherlandia frutescens extracts on cell  numbers, morphology and gene expression in MCF-7  cells Authors: B.A. Standera, S. Maraisa, T.J. Steynberga, D. Theronb, F.  Joubertc, C. Albrechtd  and A.M. Jouberta Year of publication: 2007 Summary: The article is about the influence of S.frutescens on cell numbers, morphology and gene expression in MCF-7 cells. An extraction was made our of small twogs and leaves, the solution was then filtered. It was demonstrated that ethanolic extracts of S. frutescens inhibited multiplying of MCF-7 mammary adenocarcinoma cells. Validity: Dulbeccos minimum essential medium eagle (DMEM)  with Glutamaxâ„ ¢ (Gibco BRL, USA) †¢ Trypsin–EDTA †¢ Crystal violet DNA stain was used to determine the  number of cells. (Spectrophotometrically) †¢ Heat inactivated fetal calf serum (FCS) was used to  culture the MCF – 7 human breast cell line. †¢ Penicillin was used to culture the MCF – 7 human  breast cell line. †¢ Streptomycin was used to culture MCF – 7 human  breast cell line. †¢ Sterile cell culture flasks †¢ 96-well plates where used to house the culturing cells. †¢ MCF-7 human breast a denoma carcinoma cell line  were cultured in DMEM †¢ Cell Morphology: Two hundred and fifty thousand   MCF-7 cells were put onto heat-sterilized coverslips  in well plates and they were exposed to 1.5 mg/ml of  Sutherlandia Frutescence extract for periods of 24, 36,  48, and 72 hours at 37 °C cells where counted using a  microsceope. Reliability: Sterile culture flasks and well plates where used, the cultures  where kept at a constant temperature of 37 °C and in a  humidified atmosphere with 5% CO2, the specimens of  Sutherlandia frutescens were air dried in the shade in the  area of Murraysburg in the Karoo, to reduce the chance  degradation of the specimens. The specimens where identified  as Sutherlandia frutescens by the botany and biotechnology  department at the university of Johannesburg. 1 gram of Sutherlandia frutescens was mixed with 10ml of 70%  ethanol to produce a stock solution. After the extraction of the  Sutherlandia frutescens it was centrifuged to remove any debris  and then it was filtered twice to obtain a purified 100mg/ml  stock solution. The cells where cultured for 24 hours. Vehicle controles where  used prove the effectiveness of the Sutherladnia frutescens. The results that were obtained were statistically analysed for  significance using analysis of variance factor model. This was  then proceeded by a two-tailed Student’s t-test. Evidence use to support conclusion: The ethanol extracts of the Sutherlandia frutescens inhibited  the growth of the MCF-7 mammary adencarcenoma cells of the  period of 72 hours. 1.5 mg/ml of the Sutherlandia frutescens  ethanol extract was statistically found to reduce 50% of the  growth of MCF-7 cell over 24 hours when compared to the  vehicle-treated control. Usefulness: It shows different methods of extracting the Sutherlandia  frutescens and different substances used to extract the plant. It  also gives results that have been statistically proven. Limitations: There aren’t any tests to prove its antibacterial effectiveness. The article doesn’t mention the chemical compounds present in  the plant that prove it’s effectiveness. Author’s Credentials B.A. Stander: Department of Physiology, University of Pretoria, P.O. Box 2034, Pretoria 0001, South Africa S. Marais: Department of Physiology, University of Pretoria, P.O. Box 2034, Pretoria 0001, South Africa T.J. Steynberg: Department of Physiology, University of Pretoria, P.O. Box 2034, Pretoria 0001, South Africa D. Theron: ACGT Microarray Facility, University of Pretoria, 0002 Pretoria, South Africa F. Joubert: Bioinformatics and Computational Biology Unit, University of Pretoria, 0002 Pretoria, South Africa C. Albrecht: Cancer Association of South Africa, P.O. Box 2121, Bedfordview 2008, South Africa A.M. Joubert: Department of Physiology, University of Pretoria, P.O. Box 2034, Pretoria 0001, South Africa Source 5: Title: Antibacterial Activity of Leaf Extracts from Combretum micranthum and Guiera senegalensis (Combretaceae) Authors: Stefano Banfi, Enrico Caruso, Viviana Orlandi, Paola Barbieri,  Serena Cavallari, Paolo Viganà ², Pierangelo Clerici and Luca  Chiodaroli Year of publication: 2014 Summary: Guiera senegalensis and Combretum micranthum lwaves were  used and tested on for the presence of antibacterial compounds. Five solvents were used to extract the plant material; the solvents  were used in increasing polarity. Escherichia coli C1a and  Staphylococcus aureus MSSA were used to test the antibacterial  effectiveness of the plants. A bioautographic method was used to  monitor the antibacterial activity of the plants extracts throughout  the purification steps. The Minimum Inhibitory Concentration  and Minimum Bacterial Concentration of the most purified and  active plant extracts were evaluated at the end of the procedure. Validity: Dry leaves extraction procedure: Whole leaves of C. micranthum and G. senegalensis, were dried immediately after  obtaining them from the plant in a local drying room at 40 °C. The dried leaves were then sent to Varses. Dried whole leaves  weighing 100g were poured in a 2.5 L bottle and treated with  600ml of cyclohexane (least polar solvent). After a period  of 24 hours the leaves were separated from the solvent by  means of a Buckner funnel. This procedure was repeated using  progressively more polar solvents: toluene, acetone, EtOH and  water respectively. Agar diffusion assay: Between 4-5 isolated colonies of each  strain were collected and resuspended in 5ml of PB. It was then  put onto its respective solid growth medium by means of a sterile  cotton swab. The plates were incubated at 37 °C for a set amount  of time required for each microorganism. The antibacterial effect  of the extract was measured by measuring the growth inhibition  halo. Pictures if the inhibition halos were taken using a camera to  document the findings. Reliability: Incubation temperature was kept constant at 37 °C. Evidence  of the inhibition rings were taken by means of a photo camera  and those images were later analysed. A fair test was performed  as four different methods of extraction where used, each with  increasing polarity. Evidence use to support conclusion: Cm4-P showed good activity against S. aureus and S. xylosus. Cm4-P showed some activity against Gram negative strains. Gs2-Paq was found to be more active against the Gram positive strians  compared to Cm4-P. Usefulness: Gives an example of how an extraction could be done by ordering  the solvents according to polarity. It shows how the inhibition  rings can be measured and analysed i.e. By means of taking  photographs. Limitations: The article doesn’t show extraction methods and testing methods for S. frutescens Author’s Credentials Stefano Banfi: Degree in organic chemistry in February1980 at the University of Milan, Assistant Professor in Organic Chemistry. Enrico Caruso: Graduated with a degree in organic chemistry in October 1998 from the University of Milan, Assistant Professor in Organic Chemistry, Viviana Orlandi: 1995: Degree in Biological Sciences, University of Milan discussing a thesis on Expression of oppioid receptor in primary coltures of murine cortex neurons: trasduction signal pathway and interaction with glutamate receptors. Member of the Italian Society for General Microbiology and Microbial Biotechnology (SIMGBM). Paola Barbieri: 1980: Degree in Biological Science at the University of Milan, Institute of Genetics. Member of the American Society for Microbiology (ASM)Member of the Italian Society for General Microbiology and Microbial Biotechnology (SIMGBM). Serena Cavallari: Paolo Viganà ²: Degree in Biological Sciences; Postgraduate Diploma in Microbiology, Doctor of Biological Sciences; Specialist in Microbiology Luca Chiodaroli: Conclusion Source 1 deals with the general usage of S.frutescens as a medicinal plant in South Africa. Source 2 deals with the antibacterial and antioxidant properties of S. frutescens. It also shows extraction methods and bacterial testing methods. Source 3 shows the antibacterial activities of the Ochna species of plants. This source gives an indication of what types of bacteria that need to be used for testing the antibacterial activities of the S. frutescens. Source 4 is about the influence of S. frutescens extract on MCF-7 cells. It has a good indication of an extraction method that can be used. Source 5 is about the antibacterial activity of leaf exracts from Combretum micranthum and Guiera senegalensis. It gives an example of an extraction method that can be used for S. frutescens. All the sources deal with extraction method that can be used for certain plants. Not all the articles deal with the extraction methods and testing of S. frutescens. References: B-E. van Wyk and C. Albrecht, 2008. A review of the taxonomy,  ethnobotany, chemistry and pharmacology of Sutherlandia  frutescens (Fabaceae). Journal of Ethnopharmacology, [Online].  119, 621-629. Available at: http://def-sa.com/def/wp-content/uploads/2011/10/A-review-of-the-taxonomy-ethnobotany-chemistry-and-pharmacology.pdf [Accessed 20 April 2014]. David R. Katerere†  and Jacobus N. Eloff . 2005. Antibacterial  and Antioxidant Activity of Sutherlandia frutescens (Fabaceae), A  Reputed Anti-HIV/AIDS Phytomedicine. [ONLINE] Available at:  http://def-sa.com/def/wp-content/uploads/2011/10/Antibacterial-and-Antioxidant-Activity-of1.pdf. [Accessed 06 April 14].   Tshepiso J. Makhafola and Jacobus N. Eloff. (2011). Five  Ochna species have high antibacterial activity and more than  ten antibacterial compounds. South African Journal of Science  [online]. 108, 689.Available From:http://www.sajs.co.za/five-ochna-species-have-high-antibacterial-activity-and-more-ten-antibacterial-compounds/makhafola-tshepiso-eloff-jacobus. St, er, B., Marais, S., Steynberg, T., Theron,  D., Joubert, F., Albrecht, C. and Joubert, A. (2007). Influence  of Sutherlandia frutescens extracts on cell numbers,  morphology and gene expression in MCF-7 cells. Journal of  ethnopharmacology, 112(2), pp.312318. Banfi, S., Caruso, E., Orlandi, V., Barbieri, P., Cavallari,  Ã‚  S., Vigano, P., Clerici, P. and Chiodaroli, L. (2014). Antibacterial Activity  of Leaf Extracts from Combretum micranthum and Guiera senegalensis  (Combretaceae). Research Journal of Microbiology, [online] 9(2), pp.66-81. Salim S. Abdool Karim, S. (2009). HIV infection and tuberculosis in South Africa: an urgent need to escalate the public health response. Lancet, [online] 374(9693), p.921. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2803032/ [Accessed 14 May. 2014]. Fritz Lherisson, F. (2014). South Africa. [online] Unaids.org. Available at: http://www.unaids.org/en/regionscountries/countries/southafrica/ [Accessed 16 May. 2014].

Life Lessons in Maya Angelous Graduation Essay -- American Literature

Life Lessons in Maya Angelou's Graduation Throughout life we go through many stepping stones, Maya Angelou's autobiographical essay "Graduation", was about more than just moving on to another grade. The unexpected events that occurred during the ceremony enabled her to graduate from the views of a child to the more experienced and sometimes disenchanting views of an adult. Upon reading the story there is an initial feeling of excitement and hope which was quickly tarnished with the abrupt awareness of human prejudices. The author vividly illustrates a rainbow of significant mood changes she undergoes throughout the story. From the outset of the story there is an overwhelming sense of hope that has enveloped the entire community and school with the upcoming graduation. The communitie's involvement strengthens the authors excitement in her rite of passage. Everyone is preparing for the ceremony and seeking to see how it will affect the lives of those involved. "Only a small percentage would be continuing on to college" (835) and others were just excited for the "glorious release" (834) from school. She felt like she was on top of the world, after all, "the graduating classes themselves were the nobility" (834). It is obvious how much pride she takes in her community by the way she describes her class as "an extended family." (834). The author's school was not the most impressive school compared to the white schools in the area but that could not damper the spirit that was filling the air. Parents who were buying or making new outfits for their graduates made everyone including the author the center of attention. Her "momma launched out on [hers]," (835) and she was swollen with pride that she was going to be a walking mod... ...fe she really knew and felt deep down to the core of her being what the words truly meant. The words had brought back her hope and pride in herself and in her community. What Leavy had said was a fallacy and they could as they have in the past rise above the world's bigotry. Righteousness returned to Angelou and the entire community; "we were on top again."(841). During the essay the author lost her innocence but graduated to a deeper appreciation and clarity of who she is and who she could become. In her school with no visible fences keeping the children within the schoolyard, there were the invisible fences of racism that tried to limit them from reaching their full potential. The author concludes, "I know not what course others may take, but as for me, give me liberty or give me death" (841). Works Cited: Angelou, Maya. 'Graduation.' Cromley 29-39.

Human Resources Final Project Essay

The role of the HR Department of the Department of Human Services (DHS) is to handle all aspects of employee relations. The areas it covers are Recruiting and Selection, Training and Development, Performance Management, Employee Discipline, Compensation and Benefits and Labor Relations. Each of these areas is vital to the effective operation of the company as a whole. Although each area is outlined in detail, there is still room for improvement in each. The Recruiting and Selection process at the Department of Human Services (DHS) is a fairly simple one. The requirements for the applicants are not strenuous; thereby allowing a wide range of applicants to be considered for the positions. It is recommended that a personality test be given to each applicant in order to gage their ability to handle the many different scenarios they will encounter while employed at DHS. A prerequisite for applying should be that the applicant has worked in an environment which required handling stressful situations. The Training and Development process at DHS consists of both Internal and External training methods. One such external method requires the new hire to travel to the corporate headquarters in Atlanta, GA. This training lasts for two weeks and requires the applicant to stay nightly at that location to complete the training. A suggested change to that training would be that it is held locally for those new hires that may not be able to travel for such long periods of time due to family obligations, such as having small children. As far as the internal training is concerned, the coaching portion done one on one with the new hire should be extended well after the training process has ended. This will ensure that the employee is still understanding his or her job duties and performing them accordingly. The Performance Management aspect of DHS is one in which the employees are evaluated yearly to measure their success in their position on an individual and team level. Each employee is measured according to his or her  position’s requirements and job duties. A beneficial change to this process would be to review each section of the evaluation form with the employee well in advance of their evaluation date. This will give the employee a heads up on the areas within their job that they need to focus one and the goals they need to achieve before their yearly evaluation time arrives. The Employee Discipline process at DHS serves to ensure that employees are receiving corrective action whenever a workplace infraction occurs. The employee can receive either an oral or written disciplinary action depending on the severity and frequency of the offense. Employees are given feedback on how to correct their action after the offense occurs. However, there are times when an employee is not given the proper follow up and feedback after an infraction occurs. This can in turn cause the employee to commit the offense again and make the disciplinary action process go to the next level. DHS should make sure proper follow up is done on a regular basis to ensure the education and growth of the employee. The Compensation and Benefits packages offered at DHS are designed to help make the company a competitive one. Salaries are paid on a bi-monthly basis on the 15th and last day of each month. Employees are given the option to add healthcare benefits, sign up for 401k or flexible spending accounts. There aren’t many incentives offered at DHS. One such incentive which could be offered is rewarding employees based on their monthly performance individually and as a team. This would assist with keeping employee morale high and giving them something to strive for. Also, the starting salary should be increased in order to keep the job a competitive one on the job market. Potential employees are attracted to a nice salary as well company incentives. It is essential for DHS to maintain strong and positive Labor Relations between employees and management. The employee should always feel as if they have the help and support of their management team. Communication between the two must be maintained at all times so that issues and concerns can be addressed effectively. One way for DHS to improve these relationships is for there to be more interaction between the employees and management in a non-working environment. This can be accomplished by  establishing company sporting leagues or having company picnics. The HR Department of DHS is the chief factor which ensures that the company is run smoothly and efficiently. Each functional area has a particular job to accomplish. It is important that each area be explored thoroughly to determine if each is accomplishing the tasks it has been given to handle. Implementing a few changes in each area will help to take the HR department to the next level. References Smith, A. E. (n.d.) What are furlough days? Retrieved on October 27, 2012 from http://www.wisegeek.com/what-are-furlough-days.htm Recruitment (n.d.) retrieved on October 27, 2012 from http://www.ohrmd.dhr.georgia.gov/portal/site/DHS-OHRMD/menuitem.a90032b0182b9d5171f585c4da1010a0/?vgnextoid=bc80e250e1522310VgnVCM100000bf01010aRCRD People Management-Recruitment Methods (n.d.) retrieved on October 30, 2012 from http://www.tutor2u.net/business/gcse/people_recruitment_methods.htm Heathfield, Susan, M. (n.d.) Hiring Freeze Retrieved on October 30, 2012 from http://humanresources.about.com/od/glossaryh/g/hiring_freeze.htm Temporary Worker (n.d.) retrieved on October 30, 2012 from http://education.yahoo.com/reference/encyclopedia/entry/tempwkr Selection (n.d.) retrieved on October 30, 2012 from http://www.odis.dhr.state.ga.us/1000_adm/1300_ohrmd/MANUAL/0402.pdf Employee Orientation (n.d.) retrieved on November 3, 2012 from http://www.odis.dhr.state.ga.us/1000_adm/1300_ohrmd/MANUAL/0501.pdf Marti (April 6, 2010) Human Resources: Informal vs Systematic Appraisal retrieved on November 7, 2012 from http://bloghresources.blogspot.com/2010/04/informal-vs-systematic-appraisal.html Performance Management (n.d.) retrieved on November 8, 2012 from http://www.odis.dhr.state.ga.us/1000_adm/1300_ohrmd/MANUAL/0701.pdf Disciplinary/Dismassal Actions-Classified Employees (n.d.) retrieved on November 16, 2012 from http://www.odis.dhr.state.ga.us/1000_adm/1300_ohrmd/MANUAL/1601.pdf Drug Free Workplace (n.d.) retrieved on November 16, 2012 from http://www.odis.dhr.state.ga.us/1000_adm/1300_ohrmd/MANUAL/1301.pdf Grievance Procedures for Employees (n.d.) retrieved on November 17, 2012 from http://www.odis.dhr.state.ga.us/1000_adm/1300_ohrmd/MANUAL/1501.pdf Noe, R. A., Hollenbeck, J. R., Gerhart, B., & Wright, P. M., (2011) Fundamental of Human Resource Management: Giving Performance Feedback (4th ed.) New York, New York: McGraw-Hill and Irwin Culpepper and Associates (November 24, 2010) Salary Structures: Creating Competitive and Equitable Pay Levels Retrieved on November 30, 2012 from http://www.shrm.org/hrdisciplines/compensation/Articles/Pages/SalaryStructures.aspx Calculation of Salary Payments (n.d.) Retrieved on November30, 2012 from http://www.odis.dhr.state.ga.us/1000_adm/1300_ohrmd/MANUAL/0801.pdf Salary Adjustments (n.d.) Retrieved on December 1, 2012 from http://www.odis.dhr.state.ga.us/1000_adm/1300_ohrmd/MANUAL/0802.PDF Eligibility of Benefits (n.d.) Retrieved on December 1, 2012 from http://www.odis.dhr.state.ga.us/1000_adm/1300_ohrmd/MANUAL/0901.pdf

Hendrix essays

Hendrix essays Jimi Hendrix lived his life as a Musician, Guitarist, Singer and Songwriter. He also pioneered the electric guitar, a right handed Fender Strat, upside-down and left-handed. He was one of the most original and influential people of all time. James Marshall Hendrix was born November 27, 1942 in Seattle, Washington. He taught himself to play in his school boy days. He then enlisted himself in the Army as a parachute jumper, but an injury led to discharge. He then became a session guitarist known as Jimmy James. After gigging with Little Richard in 1964, he got entangled in a contract dispute and left to form his own band, Jimmy James and the Blue Flames. One night at a New York club, Chas Chandler encountered him and in the fall of 1966, took him to London. After Making several albums including; Axis: Bold as Love and Electric Ladyland, Hendrix and bassist Redding grew apart and intoxicated by over-indulgence in drugs, Hendrix thought that Management was cheating him. In 1969 the Experience disbanded. In the summer of 69 he played at woodstock. He later formed the Band of Gypsies, and started a double album in the mid-1970s, but was never finished when he died September 18, 1970, due to inhalation of vomit after barbiturate intoxication. ...

Free Essays on Leave Me Alone

Look at me! Leave me Alone! In the article â€Å"Look at me! Leave me alone† by author Joshua Gemson we get to know his thoughts and feelings about privacy. Gemson also tells us how remarkable it is to see that people want to get on TV and get famous, but at the same time they want privacy. He uses the â€Å"Truman Show† movie as an example of how obsessed the society has become of seeing reality TV. Gemson finds it frightening to see how accustomed we have grown to be with all the cameras and reality TV around.† The TV solution to the worry that we are too watched to be real, our lives too public to be trusted, is more watching in the hope of glimpsing t e real he says† (p.459). Later in his article he is discussing privacy more closely, and he does not like the way â€Å"everyone† can find out private information about each other on the internet for example. He believes that everybody should be careful with leaving traces these days. He also feels that we should be very careful with giving out information about ourselves . Most big companies like America Online for example, sell your information to others he mentions. Cookies are an example of a more common occurrence because this is a software that tracks what you are looking at on the internet. Right after you have surfed on the internet you could receive messages about vacations, weight loss medicine etc in your e-mail. I find Joshua Gemson’s article very interesting, and it fits the time we are living in now. I support his arguments, and it worries me that people are so obsessed with cameras and getting on TV. The fact that so many people are watching it too, does not make it any better. Instead of watching other people’s lives on either internet or TV, people should rather be living their own lives. I think Gemson is making a good point when he asks us to imagine a life without TV, internet or magazines.... Free Essays on Leave Me Alone Free Essays on Leave Me Alone Look at me! Leave me Alone! In the article â€Å"Look at me! Leave me alone† by author Joshua Gemson we get to know his thoughts and feelings about privacy. Gemson also tells us how remarkable it is to see that people want to get on TV and get famous, but at the same time they want privacy. He uses the â€Å"Truman Show† movie as an example of how obsessed the society has become of seeing reality TV. Gemson finds it frightening to see how accustomed we have grown to be with all the cameras and reality TV around.† The TV solution to the worry that we are too watched to be real, our lives too public to be trusted, is more watching in the hope of glimpsing t e real he says† (p.459). Later in his article he is discussing privacy more closely, and he does not like the way â€Å"everyone† can find out private information about each other on the internet for example. He believes that everybody should be careful with leaving traces these days. He also feels that we should be very careful with giving out information about ourselves . Most big companies like America Online for example, sell your information to others he mentions. Cookies are an example of a more common occurrence because this is a software that tracks what you are looking at on the internet. Right after you have surfed on the internet you could receive messages about vacations, weight loss medicine etc in your e-mail. I find Joshua Gemson’s article very interesting, and it fits the time we are living in now. I support his arguments, and it worries me that people are so obsessed with cameras and getting on TV. The fact that so many people are watching it too, does not make it any better. Instead of watching other people’s lives on either internet or TV, people should rather be living their own lives. I think Gemson is making a good point when he asks us to imagine a life without TV, internet or magazines....

Commuity health hazards Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Commuity health hazards - Essay Example An analysis on the health risk is as follows. Cancer risk score was at 70%: non cancer risk score 100%: air released of recognized carcinogen 70%: air released of recognized development toxicants 70%: air released of reproductive toxicants 80%. From this review, it is clear that the region is facing a health threat from the environment pollutants (Pollution ReportCard, 2005). The collaborative on health and the environment is one organization involved in raising awareness on environmental health hazards. It does this by involving of the public in a dialogue to know the environmental problems facing the community and possible ways of solving the hazards (Health and the Enviroment, 2010). There also exist state laws that are responsible for monitoring the flow of waste products from industries. For example, there is the clean water act, which requires that, surface water be of high quality so as to ensure the safety of fish and wildlife population, and Safe drinking water for human consumption. Nurses also play a crucial role; they classify the health hazards, educate the public on the environmentally related diseases like lung cancer, and publish journals on environmental hazards and how they affect human health in the home, workplace, community, and globally (Maurer, Smith, & Leake, 2008). Maurer, A. F., Smith, C. M., & Leake, P. (2008). Environmental Health Risks: At Home, at Work, and in the Community, 4th ed. In A. F. Maurer, C. M. Smith, & P. Leake, Community/Public Health Nursing: Health for Families and Populations. Amsterdam: Elsevier - Health Sciences Division. Population ReportCard. (2005). Retrieved September 28, 2011, from Scorecard: The Pollution Information Site:

Human Sexuality Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 2

Human Sexuality - Essay Example The choice of the method of contraception is a personal decision based on individual preferences for convenience and comfort, medical histories and the risks and benefits and side effects associated with each method. This calls for the personal involvement of the sexually active males and females to take the appropriate decisions keeping in mind the above stated factors. Further considerations become imperative when the contraception methods are implemented or long term. The issues like whether a couple intends to have children in future are of prime importance before opting for any specific method. Almost all the birth control methods are reversible. With the discontinued usage of the birth control technique men and women will be fertile to their normalcy and will still be able to reproduce. However in the case of surgical methods it becomes comparatively difficult to reverse the situation back to normalcy; which means that once the surgery is carried out, there are less chances for that male or female to reproduce. It is generally believed that no birth control method is 100 percent effective in the prevention of pregnancy; however it is found that some methods are found more effective then the rest. The pregnancy rates for birth control methods are known as failure rates and are generally expressed in percentage that represents the number of pregnancies expected in a group of 100 fertile women using the sole method for a period of one year. Researchers use two basic types of pregnancy rates while describing the effectiveness of a birth control method. Method effectiveness, or perfect use, is the chance of becoming pregnant when a particular method is used correctly and consistently with each act of sexual intercourse.

Thomas Hobbes Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 3

Thomas Hobbes - Essay Example Only societies and governments stop this from being a constant state. This is a sort of fiction, since Hobbes points out that this has never actually happened in history. However, it helps to explain why people in countries often suffer from mistrust, violence and criminality. This ‘state of nature’ is central to Hobbes’ view of the world. This reason this is not a reality is because it is blocked by fear and reason. Reason is how man knows how to escape from the state of nature and this is how the natural laws are created which allow man to live in peace. Hobbes then develops his ideas on the ‘laws of nature’. This works against the destructive nature of the ‘state of nature’ and helps man to maintain peace and stability. These laws are instinctive to man and are obtainable though natural reason and philosophy. The first law is the law of peace and divides into the seeking of peace and the right to defend ourselves from violence in order to maintain peace. The second law is connected to peace and states that we give up certain rights, such as murder, in order to avoid continuous warfare. People mutually give up their rights and this becomes a contract, which is the foundation for moral obligations. The third law, therefore, requires us not just to make such contracts, but to respect and keep them. These first three laws are the essential way in which continuous war can be avoided. Hobbes then outlines a number of other associated laws which contribute to maintaining peace. All these laws can be summarised as avoiding actions which an individual would not want performed against themselves. God ultimately rules over these laws. Hobbes then explores how the contracts work. There are two different types of person who can be involved in a contract – natural and artificial. Hobbes defines a natural person as one who uses their own words. An artificial person, rather, is one who uses the words of

Estimating the Demand for Money Essay Example for Free

Estimating the Demand for Money Essay We all know that money employed in consumption sustains life and gives pleasure, but it does not lead to economic growth. Money employed for investment increases productive capacity, thereby increasing wealth available for consumption investment in the future. Use of money for both consumption investment leads to employment but later reaps future benefits. The quantity theory of money posits that the value of money is equal to the collective supply of goods and services in an economy. The value of money could be called the aggregate clearing price for the aggregate supply aggregate demand in an economy. A condition in which the aggregate clearing price is below the aggregate costs of production would be symptomatic of gross misallocations of resources in an economy but this kind of condition is not theoretically impossible. Ending of wars that includes cold wars are often associated with massive reallocations of productive resources and these reallocations can involve painful periods of readjustment. â€Å"Artificial bubbles† resulting from central banker manipulation of money and interest cause boom bust misallocations. Regarded money as nothing but a means to facilitate barter, the aggregate supply of goods and services represents the wealth of society. If everyone woke up one morning to find every dollar replaced by one hundred dollars, no one would be wealthier or poorer because wages and prices had two additional zeroes. Nor would there be any change in either aggregate supply or demand. The concept of aggregate supply to represent the wealth of society can be misleading. Most homeowners would sell their house if offered an outrageously high price for it. In that sense, nearly all existing homes are part of the aggregate supply. But in the normal course of events, homeowners are slowly consuming their houses by living in them and are not considering an immediate sale although the thought of eventual re-sale is usually in their minds. Similarly, most capitalists would sell their factories if offered a high price, but are primarily focused on increasing the productivity of those factories and ensuring that the factories produce goods for which demand is high. Money works magic in the minds of many economists which transform simple relationships into complex conceptual nightmares. Say’s Law one monetary interpretation holds that the costs of production (paid for labor, land and capital goods) results in the incomes essential for purchasing output. Moving this argument further, critics of Says Law express concern that all the income will not be spent concerning that some money will be saved or even hoarded. Thinking that it is better to save the money than to spend it that result to manufacturing decline, unemployment and recession. But the confident consumer who saves and invests actually benefits the economy more than the consumer who spends. Invested capital provides the means to hire labor and other factors of production that increase employment and wealth. Vision of economic activity as a circular flow of money between spenders earners blinded him to the nature of wealth-creation, productive incentives, productivity increase and economic growth. The economic benefits of savings should not be justified on the grounds that savings is another form of spending. On the contrary, savings is the source of capital accumulation. Capital technological progress is the source of economic growth. Capital means plant, equipment, technology, research and employees to make new products. Consumers can only keep an economy from recession if they are employed in productive activity. If unemployment is low and those employed are producing useful goods services, then an economy can remain healthy. High consumer spending is more an effect than a cause of the economic well-being associated with low unemployment. Consumer confidence is expected to be high if unemployment is low. Recession is not just a national bad mood. Unemployed consumers who spend money received from government destroy consume wealth without producing wealth. Economic growth occurs only if the consumer is also a producer. In empirical method it determines the relationships between economic variables through observation or experiment. The Baumol-Tobin model provides the foundation for most empirical studies of money demand. The Capital Asset Pricing Model, while important in financial economics, is viewed to be much less important in determining money demand. Most wealth is shifted under the speculative motive from long-term to short-term securities rather than money. The prices of short-term bonds do not change as much as long-term bonds and there is a default risk with money because of the limit to federal insurance on deposits. One of the difficulties in empirical work on money demand is that money demand adjusts to changes in income and interest rates with a lag. In other words, a change in income leads to a delayed change in money demand. Money demand may be slow to change because of adjustment costs, expectations may be slow to adjust or may hold that a change in income or interest rates is in part temporary. Consequently, empirical studies of money demand look at both short-term and long-term responses to changes in macroeconomic conditions. An increase in the interest rate reduces the demand for M1 money as expected, but the effect is small. An increase in the interest rate from 4 to 5 percent (a 25 percent increase) reduces money demand in the short run by 0. 5 percent (= 0. 02 x 25%). The long run response is about a 1. 25 percent reduction in money demand. An increase in the interest rate from 10 to 11 percent produces even smaller money demand responses. There is an extensive literature on the theory of money demand and the influencing factors. In general, the real money balances are related to some scale measure, such as income or wealth, and some opportunity cost measures, such as inflation, interest and exchange rates. There are various discussions on the form of the money demand function and the selection of the variables entering in the equation. Thus the choice of economic indicators varies in different country experiences due to the distinction in different financial systems. The choice of an appropriate monetary aggregate for the estimation of a meaningful money demand function is complicated. Either a broad or a narrow definition of money can be used as the monetary variable depending on the issue of the monetary authorities. Generally it may be thought that a narrow definition of money like monetary base or M1 tends to be more flexible and reactive to market operations and thus to interest rate policies. Narrow money can have a close relationship with prices since it can easily be influenced by economic variables, however it cannot always be adequate to capture all the information related to the financial system. Although narrowly defined aggregates are easy to control, their relationship with income appears subject to considerable variability. One main cause of this insufficiency is due to banking habits of money holders, as they wish to hold their savings not only in demand deposits, but also in time deposits or other different financial instruments. For that reason, a broader definition of money, such as M2 or M2X, can comprise a wider range of the financial system; however it may be less sensitive to the changes in the economy. The scale variable measuring the level of economic activity is the first determinant of the money demand function. The holding of money and thus the demand for money are related to the volume of the transactions, using the fact that the amount of the transactions is proportional to the level of income. Either a wealth variable or an income variable can be used as a scale variable. Generally, when wealth data is not available, an income variable like the Gross National Product or Gross Domestic Product can be taken into consideration. Money demand is directly proportional to income, but inversely related to market interest rates and yields on different financial assets. The interest rate concerning time deposits is thought to be the nominal return of holding money if the broad definition of money is considered, hence has a positive sign in the money demand equation. Another important variable which measures the rate of return of an opportunity cost is the interest rate on government securities. As currency substitution can occur either by switching into foreign denominated deposits or by switching to bonds or securities, the rate of interest on government securities is a measure of the rate of return of an opportunity cost, and its expected sign in the equation is therefore negative. The relationship between inflation and the demand for money has been studied widely. If there are high fluctuations in prices, the rate of inflation becomes an important determinant of the money demand function. Money demand is inversely related to predictable inflation rate since an increase in inflation increases the cost of holding money. Especially, in developing countries, the long run inflation elasticity is generally expected to be high as the range of financial instruments outside money is limited and real assets represent a substantial part of the public’s portfolio (Nachega, 2001). Like in Turkish economy that is subject to not only a high degree of price level but also a high variability in the prices, the price level has a considerable impact on the return of financial assets; as money holders will have difficulties in predicting the prices, the risk in saving money will raise and consequently the holding of money will tend to decrease. Since foreign exchange rate measures the rate of return on holding foreign currency, it is also an important determinant in the demand equation on holding foreign currency. The sign of exchange rate is negative since when the deposit holders increase their demand for foreign currencies, the domestic currency will depreciate. In an open economy, the return of foreign assets is usually denoted by some exchange rate variable, which may have an increasing role due to the high level of financial globalization. (Central Bank Review, 2002 pp. 55-65). Boughton (1992) presents the sources of disturbances that can affect the elasticities of variables in the long run equation. Inflation expectations varying over time is the first important factor that may affect real return of assets which is a vital element of the money demand equation. An inflationary expectation is generally proxied by the inflation rate, thus it is essential to examine the inflation data before inserting in the money demand equation. The change in exchange rate is the second important source of variability. Therefore the relationship between the exchange rate mechanism and the dynamics of real money balances is important, justifying the addition of the real effective exchange rate into the model.